Bodywork Then and Now

 5 April 2020 by Dirk Marivoet

Myofascial bodywork with Dirk Marivoet


Bodywork is a collective term for various techniques, both ancient and modern, that utilize movement lessons, postural re-education, exercises, massage, and other forms of therapeutic manipulation. The primary aim is to promote bodily relaxation and to support health and recovery.

Dirk Marivoet


1. Ancient Greece: Body and Mind in Homer’s Time

Mycenae, Pylos, and Knossos had disappeared. A great era had ended. The language of the clay tablets was silenced, and writing was forgotten or discarded as useless in a society that no longer needed detailed administration of large empires. It was during this time that the blind poet Homer (10th century BCE?) composed both the Iliad and the Odyssey.

The Homeric epics, which likely originated from ancient oral traditions of sagas and songs, rank among the finest achievements of world literature. They stand as the first convincing evidence of the Greeks’ creative genius.

The Iliad and the Odyssey were products of a naïve time—a period marked by primal instincts and unrestrained passions. The characters in these stories wept as easily as they laughed, and tears flowed both from anger and sorrow, as well as from joy and happiness.

The Iliad vividly portrays the violent clashes of war. Neither the poet nor his audience shied away from gruesome details: a hero’s severed head might fly like a ball through the chaos of battle, while the victor impaled his defeated enemy on a spear, hoisting him like a fisherman landing a catch. The struggle between reason and emotion was not a focus of this era.

The word psyche at that time referred to vital aspects of the body, such as breath and blood, rather than to consciousness as we understand it today. During Homer’s time, the Greek pantheon began to take the shape we now recognize. As Herodotus observed, “It was Homer and Hesiod who gave the Greeks their theology.”

2. Olympia and the Olympic Games (776 BCE – 393 CE)

More than any other people, the ancient Greeks lived by the maxim: “A healthy mind in a healthy body.” For them, a neglected body was as clear a sign of lack of education and culture as ignorance of academic subjects.

Lucian of Samosata (2nd century CE) wrote in a satirical dialogue between a Scythian (“a barbarian”) and Solon:

“The body of a brave man should not be fat and pale like that of a woman, made pale from staying indoors. Look at our sunburned youths! They look as men should: full of life, warmth, and masculine strength, radiant with health, neither wrinkled nor withered, nor overly heavy, having sweated off all excess fat and retaining only what is firm and strong. This is the result of diet and gymnastics, which are to the human body what a winnowing basket is to grain: all the chaff flies away, leaving a heap of pure kernels.”

Sport also had societal value. Lucian remarked:

“One does not train solely to win prizes at festivals—only a few achieve that—but to gain a greater good, both for oneself and for the state. Good citizens must participate in a much more important contest: the fight for individual freedom and the independence and prosperity of the entire homeland.”

Lucian also highlighted the aesthetic value of gymnastics:

“As young men must strip before a large audience, they will strive to achieve a beautiful appearance, so they need not feel ashamed to perform naked.” This demonstrates how gymnastics inspired art, as sculptors and painters continually used the finest physiques as models.

The Iliad describes funeral games held in honor of fallen heroes, such as those Achilles organized for Patroclus. The ancient Olympic Games, the most famous of all such events, drew hundreds of thousands of spectators to Olympia to witness events like running, wrestling, pentathlon, and chariot racing. Statues of the victors were erected, solidifying the central place of the body in Greek culture.


3. The First Golden Age of Science: Hippocrates, Father of Medicine

Hippocrates (460–377 BCE), a contemporary of Socrates and Plato, is regarded as the father of medicine. A compassionate man, he never overlooked the suffering person behind the illness. He focused on strengthening the entire organism, giving it the power to combat and overcome disease.

Hippocrates had great faith in the body’s natural healing power. He believed it was the physician’s task to support nature in its fight against disease. As he famously said: “Sometimes it is best to do nothing at all.”

Hippocrates described four temperaments—phlegmatic, sanguine, choleric, and melancholic—linked to the four humors: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. He recommended various methods to maintain balance or restore equilibrium, such as:

  • Ponos: general exertion and labor.
  • Gymnasion: systematic exercises.
  • Baths and massage with oils and ointments.
  • A balanced diet.

He emphasized moderation in all things, in accordance with the principle of panta metra (everything in moderation).


4. The Romans

The ideas of Hippocrates were carried forward and refined in Roman culture. Galen of Pergamum (129–199 CE) built upon Hippocratic principles, offering more detailed and structured guidelines for medical and therapeutic practices. His contributions included:

  • Massage: to be applied both before and after physical exertion to stimulate circulation and prevent blockages.
  • Progressive training: gradual transitions from light to heavy exercises.
  • Passive exercises: for those with limited mobility.

Roman efficiency brought a practical approach to bodywork, focusing on discipline and structure.


5. The Middle Ages

The Middle Ages are often remembered for castles, cathedrals, knights, and constant warfare, but in terms of bodywork, there is little documentation between the Roman period and the early Middle Ages.

One notable exception is the work of Guy de Chauliac (1363), who described methods that combined bodywork with surgical treatments. However, during this period, the influence of the Church led to the suppression of practices like massage and other forms of therapeutic touch, which were often viewed with suspicion. Instead, people were encouraged to focus on prayer and spiritual devotion.

Paracelsus, a forward-thinking physician of the late medieval period, was among the few to recognize the importance of bodywork, describing it as not only beneficial but essential for healing. It was only with the arrival of the Renaissance that Europe began to rediscover the value of bodywork.

6. The Renaissance (16th Century)

During the Renaissance, the thread of bodywork was picked up again. Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530–1606) outlined in his work De Arte Gymnastica a specialized form of gymnastics tailored to the needs of the sick and elderly. While his principles were still rooted in Hippocratic ideas, he expanded their application to new patient groups.

Ambroise Paré, regarded as the father of modern surgery, used massage as a treatment for patients who were unable to perform physical exercises. Similarly, Andry observed the effects of friction on blood circulation and skin tone, leading him to advocate for massage as a means of improving circulation and overall health.


7. The 17th Century

The 17th century marked a shift toward scientific exploration and the study of how physical forces affect the human body. Inspired by foundational researchers such as Vesalius and William Harvey (who discovered the circulation of blood in 1628), this period saw renewed interest in mechanical therapies and the role of physical manipulation in promoting health and recovery.


8. The 18th Century: The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment brought light to many domains of human knowledge, including physical therapies. Researchers such as Hoffman (1668–1738) investigated the composition of mineral baths and their effects on the body.

Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), a Swedish professor, traveled to China to learn complex massage techniques. After curing himself of rheumatism, he developed a scientific system of therapeutic massage known as the “Ling System” or Swedish massage. He also founded the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm to train practitioners.

Tissot (1747–1825) in France is recognized as the father of gymnastique médicale (medical gymnastics). He introduced fencing, horseback riding, and dancing as part of rehabilitation for patients. Around the same time, Piorry (1818) was the first to study the physiological effects of massage, introducing terms like “tapotement” to describe specific techniques.

In England, John Grosvenor (1742–1823), a respected surgeon, championed the use of manual friction for relieving stiff joints and other conditions.

During this period, industrialization also gave rise to innovative exercise devices. Gustav Zander (1835–1920) in Sweden created a series of gymnastic machines that allowed individuals to work on their health independently—a precursor to modern fitness equipment.

In Germany, Hippocrates’ ars gymnastica took on a nationalistic interpretation, leading to the development of terms such as Übungen, Krankengymnastik, and Heilgymnastik. These concepts, emphasizing structured and therapeutic movement, originated during this time and laid the groundwork for modern physiotherapy.

In the Netherlands, massage became an important technique, largely due to the influence of Johan Mezger (1838–1909). Mezger, who referred to himself as a “physician-masseur,” gained fame for his “healing power in the fingers,” elevating massage to a respected medical practice.

By 1880, massage had also been integrated into French medical practice, thanks in part to the work of Lucas-Chamionnière, who advocated for its use in clinical treatments.


9. The Twentieth Century

In 1900, the French dermatologist Jacquet recommended massage for the treatment of certain skin conditions. In 1907, he developed a facial massage technique involving pinching, kneading, and twisting, which he later called “plastic massage.” The German therapist Elizabeth Dicke revolutionized the field with the introduction of connective tissue massage, demonstrating how little was actually known about the effects of massage. Cornelius focused on treating reflex zones and called his method “contact massage.” In 1910, Wetterwald applied techniques in France that closely resembled Cornelius’s methods, particularly for treating neuralgia and cellulite.

Innovators such as Emil Vodder (manual lymphatic drainage) and Dr. James H. Cyriax (deep transverse friction massage) also played pivotal roles in the development of massage and bodywork.

The Rise of Movement Therapy

Building on arte gymnastica, the medical gymnastics pioneered by Per Henrik Ling, movement therapy found its way into psychiatric clinics. In the 1920s, German psychiatrist Simon introduced “active therapy” to counter patient passivity. By 1939, the term “movement therapy” was officially used at a psychoanalysis congress in Munich, where Heyer discussed its role as a support for psychotherapy. In the Netherlands, Kraus further disseminated these ideas, using sport and play to reactivate the remaining capabilities of his patients.

Functional and Experiential Bodywork

In the second half of the 20th century, various schools of bodywork emerged, each with a unique focus and methodology:

Functional bodywork, as developed by Mabel Todd and later refined by Ida Rolf (Rolfing), emphasized anatomical structure and body balance. The approach focused on improving posture and functional movement through deep manipulation of connective tissue.

Experiential bodywork, influenced by phenomenological psychology, drew on the work of Carl Rogers and Eugene Gendlin. Gendlin’s concept of focusing underscored the value of bodily sensations as a source of self-awareness and transformation.

Conflict-Oriented Movement Therapy and Emotional Bodywork

Conflict-oriented movement therapy is deeply rooted in the work of Wilhelm Reich, who explored the relationship between body posture, emotional blockages, and psychological conflicts. Reich’s insights inspired therapists like Alexander Lowen (bioenergetics), John Pierrakos, and David Boadella (founder of biosynthesis). Boadella integrated Reichian principles with psychology, physiology, and spirituality to create a holistic approach.

Emotional bodywork, developed by Gerda Boyesen, focused on the connection between emotions and bodily processes such as peristalsis. Her method emphasized how tensions stored in the body could be released through gentle manipulation.

Hilarion Petzold and Integrative Movement and Body Therapy

Hilarion Petzold, a pioneer in integrative therapy, combined insights from various disciplines, including movement therapy, psychotherapy, and bodywork. His approach aimed to reconnect body, mind, and spirit, emphasizing the recovery of vitality and the symbolic expression of movement. Read more about this in my article on psychomotor therapy.

Other Notable Contributions

Pioneers such as Moshe Feldenkrais (Feldenkrais Method) and Thomas Hanna (somatic education) emphasized body awareness and movement re-education. Stanislav Grof developed holotropic breathwork, a technique aimed at emotional and physical healing through intensive breathing exercises.

In body-oriented psychotherapy, significant progress was also made. Fritz Perls and Laura Perls established Gestalt therapy, laying the foundation for an experiential approach in which bodily sensations played a central role.


The Twentieth Century: A Transformative Period

The 20th century witnessed an explosion of innovations in bodywork, ranging from connective tissue massage to experiential therapies. Pioneers such as Wilhelm Reich, Ida Rolf, and David Boadella deepened our understanding of the interconnection between body, mind, and emotions. These developments formed the foundation for the widespread acceptance of bodywork in modern healthcare.


10. The 21st Century

In this century, we can dream… Bodywork has become an integral part of our pursuit of well-being. It has evolved from ancient traditions into modern therapies and continues to play a vital role in both healthcare and personal development. In a world where stress and alienation remain prevalent, bodywork offers a bridge to inner balance, connection, and well-being.

With advances in technology, bodywork can further develop through the integration of biofeedback and wearables, providing real-time insights into bodily processes. New scientific discoveries, such as neuroplasticity, highlight the dynamic relationship between the body and mind, paving the way for innovative therapies. Additionally, bodywork is increasingly accepted in mainstream healthcare, where it is recognized as a complementary approach alongside traditional medical treatments. The future holds opportunities for even more personalized and scientifically grounded approaches, solidifying bodywork’s role as an essential part of holistic care. It plays a crucial role in healthcare and personal development, offering a counterbalance to the stresses of modern life.

Music, natural sounds, gastronomy, visual arts, and massage stimulate the senses and foster balance. Where touch and intimacy thrive, there is no place for violence. Perhaps bodywork provides the blueprint for a more peaceful world.


Reflection

From Ancient Greece to the modern era, bodywork has evolved into a versatile practice that integrates the body, mind, and emotions. It continues to grow, fueled by new insights and technologies, consistently proving its value as an essential component of health and well-being.

References

  • Historical and Classical Sources:

1. Homerus – Ilias en Odyssee (ca. 8e eeuw v.Chr.).

2. Herodotus – Historiën (5e eeuw v.Chr.).

3. Galenus van Pergamum – De Methodo Medendi (2e eeuw n.Chr.).

4. Hieronymus Mercurialis – De Arte Gymnastica (1569).

  • Scientific Founders:

5. Harvey, W. – De Motu Cordis (1628), over de bloedsomloop.

6. Mezger, J. – Over de Kunst der Massage (ca. 19e eeuw).

7. Zander, G. – Mechanical Therapy: Gymnastic Movements (1876).

  • Body-Oriented Psychotherapy:

8. Reich, W. – Character Analysis (1933) en The Function of the Orgasm (1942).

9. Lowen, A. – Bioenergetics (1975).

10. Boyesen, G. – Biodynamic Therapy (1975).

  • Modern Contributions and Innovations:

11. Rolf, I. – Rolfing: The Integration of Human Structures (1977).

12. Feldenkrais, M. – Awareness Through Movement (1972).

13. Gendlin, E. – Focusing (1978).

14. Petzold, H. – Integrative Movement Therapy (1985).

15. Boadella, D. – Biosynthesis: Body and Soul in Therapy (1987).

  • Technology and Scientific Developments:

16. Siegel, D. J. – The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (1999).

17. van der Kolk, B. – The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma (2014).

18. Grof, S. – Holotropic Breathwork (2010).

  • Contemporary Trends and Applications:

19. Hanna, T. – Somatics: Reawakening the Mind’s Control of Movement, Flexibility, and Health (1988).

20. Ogden, P. – Sensorimotor Psychotherapy: Interventions for Trauma and Attachment (2015).

21. Levine, P. – Waking the Tiger: Healing Trauma (1997).

  • Additional Online Sources:

1. Articles from the  Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies.

2. International Journal of Psychotherapy – Various issues on body-oriented therapies.

3. Websites of organizations such as the  International Association for Structural Integration (IASI) en de European Association for Body Psychotherapy (EABP).

Did you like this article? Share it in:

About the author

Dirk Marivoet psychotherapist in Belgium

Dirk Marivoet, MSc is European certified and accredited psychotherapist (ECP) with over 40 years of experience in the field of integrative and holistic therapy. He is also a licensed psychomotor therapist and physiotherapist (University of Louvain) and the founder and director of the International Institute for Bodymind Integration (IBI). As an international teacher, he contributes to several Body-Oriented Psychotherapy Schools and various other training programs worldwide.

Dirk is a certified Trainer and Supervisor in Postural Integration, Energetic Integration, Reichian Bodywork, and Pelvic-Heart Integration (Jack Painter, PhD) and a Core Energetics Teacher and Supervisor (John Pierrakos, MD). He also studied extensively with Al Pesso, integrating polyvagal and trauma-informed approaches into his work.

Building on decades of practice and teaching, Dirk developed his own comprehensive synthesis and method, Core Strokes, which he offers internationally through professional training programs, workshops, and individual sessions. He is also a public speaker on these and related topics and serves as chair of the Core Science Foundation.

He is based in Ghent, Belgium.

Stay informed about the upcoming events

by subscribing to our monthly newsletter